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Chemical Weapons
1. What are chemical weapons?
2. Some instances when chemical
weapons have been used
3. What is the Chemical Weapons
Convention?
4. What do individual governments
have to do after they sign the CWC?
5. What is the Organization for
the Prohibition of Chemical weapons?
6. Who are the two biggest chemical
rogues?
7. What other states have or are
suspected of having chemical weapons?
8. How are Chemical Weapons destroyed?
9. What is the Danger of Proliferation
of Chemical Weapons?
10. Conventions, Laws and Agreements relating
to chemical warfare and biological weapons?
11. Sources on Chemical Weapons
12. Meetings of the CWC
What are chemical weapons?
About 70 different chemicals have been used or stockpiled
as Chemical Weapons (CW) agents during the 20th century. These
chemicals are in liquid, gas or solid form and blister, choke
and affect the nerves or blood. Chemical warfare agents are
generally classified according to their effect on the organism
and can be roughly grouped as: Nerve Agents, Mustard Agents,
Hydrogen Cyanide, Tear Gases, Arsines, Psychotomimetic Agents,
Toxins and Potential CW Agents.
Under the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) chemicals are
divided into three groups, defining their purpose and treatment:
* Schedule One are those typically used in weapons such as
sarin and mustard gas and tabun;
* Schedule Two include those
that can be used in weapons such as amiton and BZ;
* Schedule Three chemicals include
the least toxic substances that can be used for research and
the production of medicine, dyes, textiles, etc.
CW agents mainly used against people are divided into lethal
and incapacitating categories. A substance is classified as
incapacitating if less than 1/100 of the lethal dose causes
incapacitation, e.g., through nausea or visual problems. The
limit between lethal and incapacitating substances is not
absolute but refers to a statistical average.
Incendiary agents such as napalm and phosphorus are not considered
to be CW agents since they achieve their effect mainly through
thermal energy. Certain types of smoke ammunition are not
classed as a chemical weapon since the poisonous effect is
not the reason for their use. Plants, micro-organisms, the
produced toxins belong to that class. Pathogenic micro-organisms,
mainly viruses and bacteria, are classed as biological weapons.
* Chemicals that blister: sulphur
mustard, lewisite, nitrogen mustard, mustard-leweisite, phosgene-oxime.
* Chemicals that affect the
nerves: VX, Sarin, Soman, tabun, novichole agents.
* Chemicals that cause choking:
cholrine, phosgene, diphosgene, chloropicrin.
* Chemicals that affect the
blood: herygem, cynanide, cynaogen chlorine.
* Chemicals for riot control:
tear agent 2 (SN gas), tear agent 0 (CS gas), psychedelic
agent 3 (BZ)
Two examples:
* Mustard is an oily liquid with
a garlic-like smell. Mustard gas was first used as a chemical-warfare
agent during WWI, when it war responsible for about 70% of
the million-plus gas casualties. Both in vapour and in liquid
form its effect is to burn any body-tissue which it touches.
Taken into the body, it can act as a systemic poison-- deadlier,
weight for weight than hydrogen cyanide. Its burning effects
are not normally apparent for some hours after exposure, whereupon
they build up into the hideous picture of blindness, blistering
and lung damage. Its most prominent use after that war was
by Italy in Ethiopia during 1936. During WWII it was produced
by Britain, Canada, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan,
the Netherlands, Poland, South Africa, the USA and the USSR.
It was the CW agent that was stockpiled in by far the largest
quantity on the order of hundreds of thousands of tons overall
but used only by Japan in China. It is probably still the
most heavily stockpiled CW agent today. Its last established
use appears to have been by Egypt intervening in the (North)
Yemeni civil war of the mid-1960s.
* Tabun, or ethyl NN-dimethylphosphoramidocyanidate,
otherwise known as GA, is a liquid that evaporates only half
as fast as mustard gas, but is a powerful poison. Even short
exposure to small concentrations of its vapour can result
in almost immediate symptoms, felt first in the chest (as
a persistent contraction of the pupil) and chest (as a tightness
or asthma-like constriction). If a lethal dosage has been
induced, either from inhalation of the vapour or be absorption
of the liquid through the skin, a characteristic sequence
of toxic manifestations ensues, some of great violence, including
running nose, sweating, involuntary urination and defecation,
vomiting, twitching, convulsions, paralysis and unconscious.
2. Some instances
of use of Chemical Weapons:
* 429 B.C.- Spartans ignite pitch and sulphur to
create toxic fumes in the Peloponnesian War.
* 424 B.C.- Toxic fumes used in siege of Delium during
the Peloponnesian War.
* 1456- City of Belgrade defeats invading Turks by
igniting rags dipped in poison to create a toxic cloud.
* April 24, 1863- The US War Department issues General
Order 100, proclaiming "the use of poison in any manner, be
it to poison wells, or foods, or arms, is wholly excluded
from modern warfare".
* World War I - the use of chemical agents in WWI
caused an estimated 1,300,000 casualties, including 90,000
deaths.
* 1914- French begin using tear gas in grenades and
Germans retaliate with tear gas in artillery shells. This
was the first significant use of chemical warfare in WWI.
* April 22, 1915- Germans attack the French with chlorine
gas at Ypres, France. This was the first significant use of
chemical warfare in WWI.
* September 25, 1915 - First British chemical weapons
attack; chlorine gas is used against Germans at the Battle
of Loos.
* February 26, 1918 - Germans launch the first projectile
attack against US troops with phosgene and chloropicrin shells.
The first major use of gas against American forces.
* June 1918 - Fist US use of gas in warfare.
* June 28, 1918 - The US begins its formal chemical
weapons program with the establishment of the Chemical Warfare
Service.
* 1919 - British use Adamsite against the Bolsheviks
during the Russian Civil War.
* 1922-1927 - The Spanish use chemical weapons against
the Rif rebels in Spanish Morocco.
* 1936 - Italy uses mustard gas against Ethiopians
during its invasion of Abyssinia.
* 1942 - Nazis begin using Zyklon B (hydrocyanic acid)
in gas chambers for the mass murder of concentration camp
prisoners.
* Dec 1943 - A US ship loaded with mustard bombs s
attacked by Germans in the port of Bari, Italy; 83 US troops
die in poisoned waters.
* April 1945 - Germans manufacture and stockpile large
amounts of tabun and sarin nerve gases but do not use them.
* 1962-1970 - US uses treat gas and four types of
defoliant, including Agent Orange, in Vietnam.
* 1963-1967 - Egypt uses chemical weapons (phosgene,
mustard) against Yemen.
* 1975-1983 - Alleged use of Yellow Rain (trichothecene
mycotoxins) by Soviet-backed forces in Laos and Kampuchea.
There is evidence to suggest use of T-2 toxin, but an alternative
hypothesis suggests that the yellow spots labelled Yellow
Rain were caused by swarms of defecating bees.
* 1979 - The US government alleges Soviets use of
chemical weapons in Afghanistan, including Yellow Rain.
* August, 1983 - Iraq begins using chemical weapons
(mustard gas), Iran-Iraq War.
* 1984 - First ever use of nerve agent tabun on the
battlefield, by Iraq during Iran-Iraq War.
* 1987-1988 - Iraq uses chemical weapons (hydrogen
cyanide, mustard gas) in its Anfal Campaign against the Kurds,
most notably in the Halabja Massacre of 1988.
* March 20, 1995 - The Tokyo Subway sarin gas attack
killed nearly a dozen people and incapacitating or injuring
approximately 5,000 others. Thousands did not die from the
Tokyo attack due to impure of the agent. A tiny drop of sarin,
which was originally developed in Germany in the 1930s, can
kill within minutes after skin contact or inhalation of its
vapour. Like all other nerve agents, sarin blocks the action
of acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme necessary for the transmission
of nerve impulses.
3. What is the
Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)?
The experience of large-scale chemical warfare was so horrifying
that it led to the 1925 Geneva Protocol, which forbids the
use of chemical and bacteriological agents in war. Images
of victims gasping, frothing and choking to death had a profound
impact. The text of the protocol reflects the global sense
of abhorrence. It affirmed that these weapons had been "justly
condemned by the general opinion of the civilized world."
The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) reinforces aspects
of the Geneva Conventions that also dealt with these agents
and was negotiated over a period of 24 years. In 1992, after
a decade of long and painstaking negotiations, the Conference
on Disarmament in Geneva agreed to the text of the (CWC),
which was adopted by the General Assembly on 30 November 1992,
in its resolution entitled Convention on the Prohibition of
the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical
Weapons and on Their Destruction (A/RES/47/39).
More than 170 countries have signed the CWC, and 139 have
ratified it. The treaty entered into force on April 29, 1997,
180 days after Hungary, the 65th country, ratified. Countries
that ratify must destroy all chemical weapons over a ten year
period with the treaty providing a "levelling out principle"
that ensures possessors destroy their stockpiles at roughly
the same time.
Five years after entry into force, destruction of 20% of
the stockpile is to be completed. After seven years, 45% of
the destruction should be complete. Under the treaty countries
must to stop any development, production, acquisition, stockpiling
and retention of chemical weapons. The CWC requires States
Parties to report the location of chemical weapons storage
sites, the location and characteristics of chemical weapons
production and research facilities and prohibits trade in
certain chemicals with countries not party to the treaty.
The verification provisions of the CWC not only affect the
military sector but also the civilian chemical industry, world-wide,
through certain restrictions and obligations regarding the
production, processing and consumption of chemicals that are
considered relevant to the objectives of the Convention. The
Convention also contains provisions on assistance in case
a State Party is attacked or threatened with attack by chemical
weapons and on promoting the trade in chemicals and related
equipment among State Parties.
For a good article by article summary of the treaty, and
a copy of the whole text go to: http://www.opcw.org.
4. What
do individual governments have to do after they sign the CWC?
Once a government has ratified the Convention, it is required
to declare all of its CW facilities (both commercial and public)
within 30 days, and must destroy stockpiles within 10 years
in an environmentally sound manner at its own expense. States
Parties need to ensure that the prohibitions in the treaty
are translated from international law, binding only on states,
to Convention specifically requires States Parties to extend
their obligations to private entities, it remain silent on
precisely how to achieve this.
States are required to enact penal legislation, prohibiting
their private citizens, no matter where they are on earth,
from undertaking any of the activities prohibited to the state
itself by the Convention. Many states have also enacted laws
laying down an obligation to provide declaration required
relating to production, processing, consumption, import and
export of chemicals above thresholds specified in the Convention.
Click here for the Action
Plan on Implementation of the CWC, adopted October
2003.
Another area in which most states have enacted legislation
provides two-year, multiple-entry visa to inspectors who on
48 hours notification can inspect to clarify and resolve questions
of non-compliance. During inspections they can interview personnel,
request samples and evaluate chemical weapons destruction
sites. They can evaluate a site for up to 84 hours.
What is
the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons?
The Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
came into existence on 29 April 1997 and is based in The Hague,
Netherlands. The OPCW is made up about 5,000 staff that monitors
the destruction of chemical weapons and of chemical weapons
production facilities. The staff also implements the complex
declaration and short notice challenge inspections under the
verification procedures, undertakes routine inspections and
trains inspectors. The staff are accountable to all signatories
and an Executive Council made up to 41 member states. In May
2000, the Director-General Mr. Jose Bustani was confirmed
for a second term of four years starting 13 May 2000.
The Executive Council:
Elected for two years (2000-2002): Austria, Canada, Netherlands,
Spain, Sweden, Chile, Cuba, Panama, Peru, Poland, Russian
Federation, Slovenia, Indonesia, Islamic Republic of Iran,
Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Algeria, Morocco, Namibia and South Africa.
Elected for two years (1999- 2001): France, Germany, Italy,
UK, Northern Ireland, US, Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Romania,
Ukraine, Bangladesh, China, India, Japan, Republic of Korea,
Saudi Arabia, Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire, Ethiopia, Tunisia,
and Zimbabwe.
6. Who
are the two biggest Chemical Rogues?
Russia
The Russian Federation possesses approximately 40,000 tonnes
of CW agents stored at seven sites. The arsenal consist of
the nerve agents sarin, soman and V-gas, the vesicants lewisite
and mustard, and the choking agent phosgene. Approximately
80% of the stockpile consists of nerve agents.
As of 11 April 1992, Russia did not have a comprehensive
destruction act. Although the State Duma unanimously passed
such a bill on 27 December 1996, the Federation Council rejected
it the following month. Nevertheless, plans for CW destruction
continue to be developed. A comprehensive destruction act
is needed to provide the legal basis for destruction, irrespective
of Russia's ratification of the CWC.
Chemical weapon destruction efforts were hindered by a lack
of funding ($3.35 billion is needed). The most significant
assistance thus far is the US funding for the construction
of a pilot CW destruction facility at Shchuchye (an estimated
$600 million). US destruction aid is closely associated with
a continuing joint evaluation of Russia's two-stage nerve
agent destruction technology: the Russian-US Joint Evaluation
Program. It is being conducted within the framework of the
1990 Bilateral Destruction Agreement and a 1994 Plan of Work
addendum.
The United States
The US stockpile consists of over 30,000 tonnes of unitary
CW gent and approximately 700 tonnes of binary components.
It includes the nerve agents sarin and VX and the vesicant
mustard. They are stored at the nine locations: Johnston Atoll
in the Pacific Ocean; Edgewood, Maryland; Anniston, Alabama;
Blue Grass, Kentucky; Newport, Indiana; Pine Bluff, Arkansas;
Pueblo, Colorado; Tooele, Utah; and Umatilla, Oregon. The
cost of destroying the US stockpile is currently estimated
at approximately $12.4 billion. Large-scale destruction operations
began at the Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System
(JACADS) in 1990. The second destruction facility at Tooele,
Utah, began operation in August 1996.
Incineration continues to be the US Army's baseline destruction
technology, but alternative destruction technologies are also
being considered because of the opposition be some parties
to incineration. The US Army is required by law to consider
alternative destruction technologies for the destruction of
bulk agent. Three proposals by private industry plus two developed
by the Army have been evaluated by the National Academy of
Sciences.
In addition, the research, development, test and evaluation
inventory comprises approximately 4400 kg, and recovered munitions
and similar "non-stockpile" items amount to approximately
6100 kg. The programme for items which are not part of the
US CW stockpile deals with recovered chemical munitions, chemical
agent detector kits and miscellaneous chemical material stored
at an estimated 65 sites. The destruction of non-stockpiled
CW material will cost estimated $15.2 billion.
7. Which
other States have or are suspected of having Chemical Weapons?
China - ratified the CWC on 25 April 1997; China
has declared possession of former chemicals weapons production
facilities; initial inspections have been conducted.
Egypt - has not signed the CWC.
Ethiopia - ratified the CWC on 13 May 1996.
India - ratified the CWC on 3 September 1996; India
publicly announced itself to be a chemical weapons possessor
on 26 June 1997; initial inspections have not been conducted.
Iran - ratified the CWC on 3 November 1997, initial
inspections have begun.
Iraq - has not signed the CWC.
Israel - has signed, but not ratified the CWC.
Libya - has not signed the CWC.
Myanmar - has signed, but not ratified the CWC.
North Korea - has not signed CWC.
Pakistan - ratified the CWC on 28 October 1997; initial
declaration submitted.
South Korea - ratified the CWC on 28 April 1997.
Syria - has not signed the CWC.
Taiwan - has not signed the CWC.
Vietnam - has signed but not ratified the CWC.
8. How
are Chemical Weapons Destroyed?
Former Methods of Destruction
Previously the most common disposal methods for chemical
weapons were land burial, sea dumping, detonation (firing
or exploding the munitions) and open-pit burning. These methods
may have been thought to be quite clever at the time (out
of sight, out of mind), but their danger has since become
starkly apparent.
Buried munitions pose problems environmentally. Once the
munitions begin to corrode and leak, the agents can contaminate
the surrounding soil and even get into water sources. Sea
dumping of chemical munitions is another method of disposal
that has caused a number of problems. Some of these dumping
operations have occurred in relatively shallow water in the
Baltic Sea and off the coast of Japan. In both of these regions,
dumped chemical weapons caused serious problems for the fishing
industry. Fishermen in the Baltic and off the coast of Japan
still haul old chemical weapons up in their nets, and are
sometimes exposed to still-active agents.
Destruction Methods of Today
There are two major confirmed technologies for destroying
chemical weapons acceptable under the CWC limits today, incineration
and chemical degradation. However, there are dozens of alternative
technologies, and the number is growing.
Under the Baseline incineration process, chemical weapons
are first taken to the demilitarization facility, where the
chemical agent is removed from the munitions or bulk containers
by automated equipment. This puts the workers at the demilitarization
plant at a very low risk of contamination.
Chemical degradation (or chemical neutralization) technologies
also take many different forms. There are a number of chemicals,
namely alkalis and oxidants, which reduce and often negate
the toxicity of chemical agents.
The Chemical Weapons Destruction Challenge
While the technologies for destroying chemical weapons do
exist, in practice there are many factors that may come into
conflict when the destruction process is carried out. The
issues that must be considered include the high costs of destruction,
safety, and environmental, legal and political factors.
Although environmentalist groups have legitimate concerns
that the weapons be disposed of in an environmentally safe
manner, weapons experts generally agree that it is environmentally
much more dangerous for the weapons to remain in storage for
the additional years required to develop alternative methods
of destruction.
Safety must also be carefully considered in the destruction
of chemical weapons. This entails precautions and regulations
that protect not only employees working in the destruction
facility, but also the civilian population surrounding the
facility. Highly sensitive monitoring equipment must be used
in order to ensure there is no leakage of toxic agents.
The United States claims it has 12,000 tons of chemical agents
in munitions and another 19,000 tons in bulk storage. Russia,
the sole in-heritor of the former Soviet Union's chemical
weapon stockpile, officially reports its stockpile to be 40,000
tons. These two countries are the only signatories to the
CWC that have admitted to possessing chemical weapons. In
1994, the United Nations Special Commission on Iraq (UNSCOM)
declared that Iraqi chemical weapons capabilities had been
destroyed, leaving Iraq with no surplus (or any) chemical
weapons stocks. A large number of old and abandoned chemical
weapons still exist in a number of countries. The total amount
of chemical weapons and old and abandoned chemical weapons
that must be destroyed worldwide is daunting. The original
1985 cost estimate for the destruction of the US chemical
weapon stockpile was US $1.7 billion. Today, the estimated
cost of destruction is about US $9 billion and growing.
9. Chemical
Weapons Proliferation
One must also consider the threat of proliferation when it
comes to reducing arsenals. In the case of chemical weapons,
the threat of proliferation is much smaller than that of nuclear
or conventional weapons. This is true for several reasons.
First of all, many of the chemical weapons of today's arsenals
are aging and dangerous to transport. Second, it would be
cheaper in most cases for a country desiring chemical weapons
to produce them than to try to buy them on the illegal arms
trade market. Third, the quantity of chemical weapons needed
to pose a significant threat is large, especially when compared
to nuclear weapons. An illegal transfer of a significant quantity
of chemical weapons would be very difficult to hide. Finally,
a country would not want to import chemical weapons unless
it had a sufficient chemical protection gear and training
for its own forces, a costly undertaking. Unfortunately, virtually
every country has the technology to produce some of the simple
agents used during World War I. In sum, if a country really
wants a chemical weapons arsenal, it would be easier to build
one itself rather than to import stocks.
10. Conventions,
Laws, and Agreements relating to chemical warfare and chemical
weapons
* The Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War
of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological
Methods of Warfare.
* The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention, Convention
on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling
of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons.
* The Australian Group: Formed by Australia in 1984 this
30 member group is an informal and voluntary consortium of
nations, founded as a result of chemical weapons use in the
Iran-Iraq War, whose goal is the limitation of chemical and
biological weapons proliferation. Members meet annually to
share information about proliferation dangers and to harmonize
national export controls in an effort to curb the transfer
of materials or equipment that could be used in the creation
of chemical or biological weapons. The group has created lists
of both items whose export should be controlled, as well as
"warning" lists of items whose purchase could be indicative
of proliferation activities. With no formal charter or constitution,
the Australia Group works by consensus.
* Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of
War on Land, The Hague 1899 (see Article 23 (a) of the Annex).
* Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of
War on Land, The Hague 1907 (see Article 23 (a) of the Annex).
Some Conventions relating to Toxic Chemicals and the Environment
* Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement
of Hazardous Wastes and the Disposal.
* ENMOD, Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any
Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques.
* Bamako Convention the Ban of the Import Into Africa and
the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous
Wastes Within Africa.
* Convention for the CO-operation in the Protection and Development
of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central
African Region (1981); and Protocol.
* Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer
(1985) and the Corresponding Protocol: Montreal Protocol on
Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer.
* Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based
Sources (1974).
* Convention on the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea Against
Pollution (1976) and Protocols (1980, 1982).
* Agreement for CO-operation in Dealing with Pollution of
the North Sea by Oil and Other Harmful Substances (1983)
* Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (1979)
and Protocols Relating to Financing of a European Monitoring
Programme, Reduction of Sulphur Emissions, Nitrogen Oxide
Emissions and Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds.
* Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of
Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1989).
* Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution
(1992); and Protocols. Information for this backgrounder was
found on the following websites:
* Destruction of Chemical Weapons: http://www.opcw.nl/chemhaz/arwnaal1.htm
* Bonn International Center for Conversion http://www.bicc.de/weapons/brief3/chap3.html
* http://www.opcw.org.
11. Sources
on Chemical Weapons
Centre for Defence and International Security Studies. "Devil's
Brews in Detail: Chemical Weapons". http://www.cdiss.org/cw.htm.
THE CHEMICAL WEAPONS CONVENTION HOMEPAGE (CWC) A joint site
sponsored by: The United States Department of State, Bureau
of Arms Control and
The United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Export
Administration (BXA) http://www.cwc.gov/
Chemical & Biological Weapons Resource Page. Monterey
Institute of International Studies, Center for Nonproliferation
Studies http://cns.miis.edu/research/cbw.htm.
The CBW Conventions Bulletin. THE HARVARD SUSSEX PROGRAM
ON CBW ARMAMENT AND ARMS LIMITATION. http://fas-www.harvard.edu/~hsp/bulletin.html
Coalition to Reduce Nuclear Dangers. "The Poison Gas
Threat and the Chemical Weapons Convention". http://www.clw.org/coalition/poison/poison.htm.
Crone, Hugh D. Banning Chemical Weapons: The Scientific
Background. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Federation of American Scientists. Chemical Weapons. http://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/cw/
Henry L. Stimson Center. Chemical and Biological
Weapons Nonproliferation Project http://www.stimson.org/cwc/
Hogendoorn, E.J. "A Chemical Weapons Atlas". Bulletin
of the Atomic Scientists. Vol. 53, No. 5 (September/October
1997).http://www.bullatomsci.org/issues/1997/so97/so97hogendoom.html
McCuen, Gary. Poison in the wind: The Spread of Chemical
and Biological Weapons,USA: Gary McCuen Publications Inc.,
1992
Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
Homepage
Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Annual
Report 2000.
Phycisians for Human Rights. "Research and Investigations:
Chemical Weapons". http://www.phrusa.org/research/chemical_weapons/
Price, Richard M. The Chemical Weapons Taboo. Ithaca: Cornell
University Press, 1997.
Pringle, Laurence. Chemical and Biological Warfare: The
Cruelest Weapons, USA: Enslows Publishers Inc., 1993
Tucker, Jonathan B. "The Chemical Weapons Convention:
Implementation Challenges and Solutions". Washington
DC: Monterey Institute of International Studies, April
2000.http://www.cns.miis.edu/pubs/reports/tuckcwc.htm
Tucker, Jonathan B. War of Nerves: Chemical Warfare from
World War I to Al-Qaeda. New York: Pantheon Books, 2006. http://www.cns.miis.edu/pubs/books/nerves.htm
12. Meetings
of the Chemical Weapons Convention
Tenth
Session of the Conference of the States Parties, 7-11
November 2005, The Hague, The Netherlands.
The Conference of the States Parties is composed of all members
of the OPCW
and is the principal organ of the Organisation.
777 UN Plaza - 6th Floor - New York, NY - 10017 - Ph: 212.682.1265 - Fax: 212.286.8211 - info@reachingcriticalwill.org
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