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Nuclear Energy
This fact sheet is also available as a concise,
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file.
Introduction
While virtually the whole world stands against the
development and use of nuclear weapons, attitudes vary when it comes
to the development and use of nuclear energy. Proponents of nuclear
energy tout it as a form of clean ”energy since it releases
virtually none of the harmful CO2 emissions associated with fossil
fuel. However, construction
of nuclear power plants does emit great amounts of CO2, as construction
instruments and processes, such as trucks, cranes, front-end loaders,
etc., rely on other sources of energy - especially fossil fuels.
In addition, the health and environmental costs of
nuclear energy are horrific. The possibility of accidents, such
as that of Chernobyl or Three Mile Island, the threat of nuclear
terrorism, the potentional for horizontal nuclear proliferation,
the damaging effects from the entire nuclear cycle, from uranium
mining to nuclear waste, all indicate that the risks of nuclear
energy far outweigh the benefit.
Nuclear energy is a hot button political issue. Iraq
and North
Korea managed to develop clandestine nuclear weapons programs
under the guise of "peaceful" nuclear energy, only for their weapons
programs to be discovered later. (Iraq's program was dismantled
mostly through the Gulf War and the ensuing inspections by IAEA.)
The Women's International League for Peace and Freedom
opposes the use of nuclear energy. The Reaching Critical Will project
seeks to provide you with all of the information you need to deepen
your understanding of this controversial issue. Below you'll find
all the facts you need to know about nuclear energy technology,
its environmental consequences, its political and historical background,
and the current issues surrounding it today. You will also find
helpful links to more in-depth information on the particular aspects
of nuclear energy and politics.
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Nuclear energy is problematic at each stage of its
cycle:
1. Uranium mining. Uranium is extracted from underground
and open pit mines. For every ton of uranium oxide produced, thousands
of tons of wastes, or tailings, are left behind. Often the tailings
are simply dumped on the land near the mine and left to the effects
of the elements. Wind carries radon gas and radioactive dust from
these tailings for many miles. Contaminated rainwater enters the
soil, the watershed, and, eventually, the food chain, endangering
the health of people, animals, and the planet. Uranium mining on
indigenous and tribal peoples' lands has devastated local communities
and environments in North America, Australia, Africa, and Asia.
2. Enrichment. After mining the uranium mineral
is refined to uranium oxide, called yellowcake. This natural uranium
is processed and then enriched. Industrial processes enrich uranium
by concentrating the amount of its fissile isotopes to 3% or more
for use as reactor fuel. Uranium can be further enriched for use
in nuclear weapon—the technology used to enrich uranium to
3% is the same as is used to enrich it to 20%, the level necessary
for use in a nuclear weapon.
3. Reprocessing. Reprocessing is a chemical reaction
that separates plutonium and uranium from fuel which has been irradiated
in reactors. The plutonium is important for weapons production,
while the uranium is basically a byproduct that can be recycled
as fuel. Because reprocessing is also part of the civilian nuclear
fuel cycle, reprocessing is a key link between civilian nuclear
power and nuclear weapons production. Thus, the existence of a reprocessing
plant is what gives a country the ability to produce plutonium for
nuclear weapons. Four-fifths of the plutonium in the world today
has been produced by commercial nuclear power reactors. This spread
of plutonium through nuclear power has increased the number of potential
nuclear weapons states to 46. The five declared nuclear weapons
nations—China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the
United States—are only one-ninth of the real "nuclear
club". (Jan Thomas et al, Safe
Energy Handbook, Plutonium Free Future, Santa Barbara,
CA: INOCHI, 1997.)
4. Radioactive waste. By the year 2000, the nuclear
industry had created 201,000 tons of highly radioactive irradiated
(used) fuel rods. Waste from nuclear energy production must be safely
and securely stored for between 10,000 years and 240,000 years in
order to prevent health and environmental disasters from radioactive
contamination. None of the 44 countries with nuclear reactors has
a solution to the waste problem. The wastes are either kept in "temporary",
above-ground storage facilities or buried in shallow pits. Wastes
have been dumped directly into the ground, lakes and oceans of the
world. A 2003 MIT study projected that, if the world expands its
nuclear energy production to 1,000 gigawatts by 2050 (an increase
of 2% per year), a new storage facility equal to the currently planned
capacity of Yucca Mountain would have to be created somewhere in
the world about every three to four years to permanently store the
spent nuclear fuel. (John Deutch and Ernest J. Moniz
et al, The Future of Nuclear Power: An Interdisciplinary MIT Study,
Cambridge, MA: MIT, 2003.)
For more detailed information on the nuclear
fuel cycle,
please see Reaching Critical Will's Fuel
Cycle page.
Also see How
Stuff Works' illustrated explanation of nuclear
energy production.
Politics of Nuclear Energy
Background
1. Atoms for Peace. Dwight Eisenhower’s
landmark speech made to the United Nations General Assembly on 8
December 1953 addressed the world’s widespread fear and discontent
over recently developed atomic technology and weapons. His speech
proposed that a nuclear regulatory agency be created, which led
to the establishment of the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Eisenhower sought to transform
nuclear technology into a peaceful and humanitarian pursuit by focusing
on nuclear energy development; however, his promotion of nuclear
energy led to its proliferation through the US and the world.
Full text of Atoms for Peace
For more information, see articles by the Arms
Control Association and the Bulletin
of Atomic Scientists.
2. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
Developed as a means to curb and control the production and proliferation
of nuclear weapons and nuclear weapons materials, this treaty entered-into-force
in 1970. While imposing restrictions on nuclear weapons development,
Article IV of the NPT establishes access to nuclear technology for
peaceful purposes as an “inalienable right. ” Please
see the full
text of Article IV and further
discussion of Article IV and its legacy.
3. The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).
The CTBT,
negotiated by the Conference on Disarmament and presented to the
UN General Assembly in September 1996, is the first treaty to ban
all nuclear explosions. The CTBT took an important leap forward
in disarmament legislation by including nuclear test explosions
in the ban. What is particularly interesting about the CTBT is that
it can only enter into force once all 44 states with nuclear energy
reactors sign and ratify the treaty regardless of whether they have,
or are pursuing, nuclear weapons. This requirement, established
in Annex II of the CTBT, was an unprecedented acknowledgement of
the link between nuclear weapons and nuclear energy capabilities.
As of yet, this Treaty has not been ratified by all Annex II states.
Current Controversies
Countries such as Iraq, Iran,
and North
Korea have brought the connection between nuclear energy and
nuclear weapons into the international spotlight. As the media coverage
grows around these stories, it is important to remember the cold
hard facts about the types of nuclear technology each country actually
possesses. Please visit the IAEA's site
for a profile of each country, or Reaching Critical Will’s
own annual
shadow report for more comprehensive information.
Iraq. After the first Gulf War, IAEA
inspectors discovered a clandestine nuclear weapons program in Iraq,
which Iraq had maintained was intended strictly for peaceful nuclear
purposes. The IAEA, operating under the Comprehensive Safeguards
Agreement (a weak verification regime mandatory under the NPT),
had failed to effectively detect Iraq’s clandestine program.
This IAEA failure led to the development of the Model Additional
Protocol, a much more stringent and intrusive inspections regime.
More and more States are beginning to support the idea of the Model
Additional Protocol as a precondition to the NPT Article IV entitlement.
Doubts over Iraq’s nuclear weapons program during the second
Bush administration lead to further IAEA inspections. While the
United Nations and many States around the world wanted to continue
inspections, the second Bush administration felt that inspections
would not be able to provide conclusive answers. As a result, the
US decided to initiate the current war without approval from the
UN.
For more information, please see the Arms
Control Association.
North Korea. The events surrounding North
Korea’s attempts at developing nuclear weaponry from nuclear
energy capabilities illustrates the dangers of nuclear energy proliferation.
One particularly interesting aspect of the US’s reactions
to North Korea’s nuclear developments is in how markedly different
it is from its reaction to allegations about Iraq’s nuclear
development.
For more information, please see RCW's North
Korea Report.
Iran. Under the NPT, all countries are
allowed to develop nuclear power for peaceful uses, under the inspection
of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). They are also
allowed to enrich uranium to the level needed to make fuel for nuclear
power, again under the IAEA's monitoring. However, the same technology
can be used to enrich uranium further in order to make nuclear weapons.
Whether or not Iran is secretly developing or intending to develop
nuclear weapons, by hiding its uranium enrichment programme for
18 years from the IAEA Iran has violated the NPT and alarmed the
international community.
For more information, please see RCW's report, Nuclear
Iran?
Nuclear Energy and Climate
Change
FACT: The phenomenon known as global warming has
been documented
by scientists. CO2 build-up in the atmosphere causes solar energy
to be trapped thus raising the average global temperature and causing
potentially harmful climate and ecological change.
FACT: A reduction of CO2 emissions generated by
human activity is necessary to slow or at least reduce the contribution
of human activity to this ecologically menacing phenomenon.
FACT: 70%
of world electricity comes from Fossil Fuels. About
16% of the world’s electricity comes from Nuclear Power and
14% from Renewable Resources.
FICTION: Increased use of nuclear
energy should be the solution to dependence on fossil fuels and
thus help reduce global CO2 emissions.
FACT: Nuclear power usage has environmental, health,
and security risks that make it an undesirable substitute for fossil
fuels. Many sources of renewable energy do not pose such great risks,
and thus should be explored.
FICTION: Nuclear power is a Clean
Source of Energy that can safely and effectively be used to produce
electricity without CO2 emissions.
FACT: Research
has shown that taking into account the entire nuclear fuel cycle,
between 34 and 60 grams of CO2 are emitted per generated kilowatt
hour (kWh). Estimates place the CO2 per unit of energy at 4-5 times
higher than the average quantities of CO2 produced from renewable
energy sources.
FACT: Nuclear energy is not a clean source of
energy because it produces massive amounts of toxic, radioactive
waste. In the US, this currently amounts to 2,000 metric tons of
highly radioactive waste per year.
FACT: Waste from nuclear energy production must
be safely and securely stored for between 10,000 years and 240,000
years in order to prevent health and environmental disasters from
radioactive contamination.
FACT: The Three Mile Island, and Chernobyl disasters
caused environmental, economic, health, social damage to the areas
and communities in the regions.
Resources
Action
Kit - Healthy from the Start Campaign - a
project of the Institute for Energy and Environmental Research,
Making Our Milk Safe (MOMS), Alliance for Nuclear Accountability,
People for Children's Health and Environmental Justice, and Physicians
for Social Responsibility
Arjun Makhijani, "Carbon-Free
and Nuclear-Free: A Roadmap for US Energy Policy," Science
for Democratic Action, Volume 15, Number 1, August 2007.
Michael Spies, "Another
turn of the centrifuge," DisarmamentActivist.org, 24 August
2006.
Jackie Cabasso, "From
the Other Side of the Glass: Some Responses to the State of the
Union Address," DisarmamentActivist.org, 2 February 2006.
International Atomic Energy Agency, "Nuclear
Plant Safety: No Room for Complacency," Staff Report, 2 December
2005.
Internation Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, Rethinking
Nuclear Energy and Democracy after September 11, 2001, ”IPPNW
Global Health Watch Report, 2004.
S. Julio Friedman and Thomas Homer-Dixon, "Out
of the Energy Box," Foreign Affairs, November/December
2004.
Friends of the Earth, "Power
Politics: Linking Congress, Campaign Contributions and Energy
Policy," 4 November 2003.
David Krieger and Marissa Zubia, "Nuclear
Age Peace Foundation's Top Ten Reasons to Oppose the DoE's Yucca
Mountain Plan," 23 August 2002.
Lawyers' Committee on Nuclear Policy, "Nuclear
Energy and the Non Proliferation Treaty: An Authorized Albatross?"
April 1998.
RCW's "Indigenous
Fact Sheet": perspectives on nuclear energy and weapons of indigenous
communities around the world.
NGOs set the record straight on nuclear energy in the Truth
Commission report.
How safe is nuclear energy? The
Global Resource Action Center on the Environment discusses
nuclear energy in the United States, and also explores other, sustainable
sources of energy for the world's people.
Organizations and Websites
Canadian
Coalition for Nuclear Responsibility: In depth information and
factsheets about nuclear technology and the Canadian nuclear industry.
Friends of the Earth
International: Federation of autonomous environmental organizations
that conduct research, educate, and advocate global environmental
issues.
Greenpeace
International: News reports and action alerts on ending the
threat of nuclear energy (+ glossary
of terms).
Greenpeace
International "No More Chernobyls Page": Sign the Greenpeace
Chernobyl Petition.
How
Stuff Works: A clear, illustrated explanation of the processes
of nuclear power and energy production.
IAEA Homepage:
Updates and news on major nuclear issues, also includes background
and historical information.
Institute
for Energy and Environmental Research: Useful factsheets, publications,
and tutorials on the science of nuclear energy.
Nucler
Age Peace Foundation: Nuclear factsheets, some news updates,
and action bulletins.
NuclearFiles.org
- Nuclear Energy: A project of the NAPF, offering analyses and
basic information.
Nuclear
Information and Resource Service: Lots of useful factsheets,
news updates, and action bulletins.
Nuclear Threat Initiative:
Daily news updates, comprehensive discussion of nuclear topics,
country profiles.
NucNews.Net:
A wide array of news sources, updated almost daily - offers an E-News
service called Radiation Bulletin and archives on the website.
The
Sustainable Energy and Anti-Uranium Service Inc. (SEA-US): Promotes
and publishes information on safe and sustainable energy production,
a nuclear free world, and anti-uranium mining issues.
World
Nuclear Association: Weekly summaries of international news
relevant to the nuclear energy industry
777 UN Plaza - 6th Floor - New York, NY - 10017 - Ph: 212.682.1265 - Fax: 212.286.8211 - info@reachingcriticalwill.org
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