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Nuclear Energy
This fact sheet is also available as
a concise, printable two-page
PDF file.
It should be remembered that nuclear technology
was originally developed for military use.
The military-to-civil adaptability of nuclear programmes was
essentially an afterthought, following the research,
development and use of nuclear weapons. The history of nuclear
power has shaped not only the inherent
physical duality of nuclear programmes, but also their association
with political power and national military security.
These factors should be kept in mind when assessing energy
needs and the nuclear option.
- Merav Datan, "Nuclear futures for the Middle East:
impact on the
goal of WMD-free zone," Disarmament Forum, two,
2008.
Introduction
While virtually the whole world stands against
the development and use of nuclear weapons, attitudes vary
when it comes to the development and use of nuclear energy.
Proponents of nuclear energy tout it as a form of clean ”energy
since it releases virtually none of the harmful CO2 emissions
associated with fossil fuel. However, construction
of nuclear power plants does emit great amounts of CO2, as
construction instruments and processes, such as trucks, cranes,
front-end loaders, etc., rely on other sources of energy -
especially fossil fuels.
In addition, the health and environmental costs
of nuclear energy are horrific. The possibility of accidents,
such as that of Chernobyl or Three Mile Island, the threat
of nuclear terrorism, the potentional for horizontal nuclear
proliferation, the damaging effects from the entire nuclear
cycle, from uranium mining to nuclear waste, all indicate
that the risks of nuclear energy far outweigh the benefit.
Nuclear energy is a hot button political issue.
Iraq and North
Korea managed to develop clandestine nuclear weapons programs
under the guise of "peaceful" nuclear energy, only for their
weapons programs to be discovered later. (Iraq's program was
dismantled mostly through the Gulf War and the ensuing inspections
by IAEA.)
The Women's International League for Peace
and Freedom opposes the use of nuclear energy. The Reaching
Critical Will project seeks to provide you with all of the
information you need to deepen your understanding of this
controversial issue. Below you'll find all the facts you need
to know about nuclear energy technology, its environmental
consequences, its political and historical background, and
the current issues surrounding it today. You will also find
helpful links to more in-depth information on the particular
aspects of nuclear energy and politics.
Nuclear
Fuel Cycle
Nuclear energy is problematic at each stage
of its cycle:
1. Uranium mining. Uranium is extracted from
underground and open pit mines. For every ton of uranium oxide
produced, thousands of tons of wastes, or tailings, are left
behind. Often the tailings are simply dumped on the land near
the mine and left to the effects of the elements. Wind carries
radon gas and radioactive dust from these tailings for many
miles. Contaminated rainwater enters the soil, the watershed,
and, eventually, the food chain, endangering the health of
people, animals, and the planet. Uranium mining on indigenous
and tribal peoples' lands has devastated local communities
and environments in North America, Australia, Africa, and
Asia.
2. Enrichment. After mining the uranium
mineral is refined to uranium oxide, called yellowcake. This
natural uranium is processed and then enriched. Industrial
processes enrich uranium by concentrating the amount of its
fissile isotopes to 3% or more for use as reactor fuel. Uranium
can be further enriched for use in nuclear weapon—the
technology used to enrich uranium to 3% is the same as is
used to enrich it to 20%, the level necessary for use in a
nuclear weapon.
3. Reprocessing. Reprocessing is a chemical
reaction that separates plutonium and uranium from fuel which
has been irradiated in reactors. The plutonium is important
for weapons production, while the uranium is basically a byproduct
that can be recycled as fuel. Because reprocessing is also
part of the civilian nuclear fuel cycle, reprocessing is a
key link between civilian nuclear power and nuclear weapons
production. Thus, the existence of a reprocessing plant is
what gives a country the ability to produce plutonium for
nuclear weapons. Four-fifths of the plutonium in the world
today has been produced by commercial nuclear power reactors.
This spread of plutonium through nuclear power has increased
the number of potential nuclear weapons states to 46. The
five declared nuclear weapons nations—China, France,
Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States—are
only one-ninth of the real "nuclear club".
(Jan Thomas et al, Safe
Energy Handbook, Plutonium Free Future, Santa Barbara,
CA: INOCHI, 1997.)
4. Radioactive waste. By the year 2000,
the nuclear industry had created 201,000 tons of highly radioactive
irradiated (used) fuel rods. Waste from nuclear energy production
must be safely and securely stored for between 10,000 years
and 240,000 years in order to prevent health and environmental
disasters from radioactive contamination. None of the 44 countries
with nuclear reactors has a solution to the waste problem.
The wastes are either kept in "temporary", above-ground
storage facilities or buried in shallow pits. Wastes have
been dumped directly into the ground, lakes and oceans of
the world. A 2003 MIT study projected that, if the world expands
its nuclear energy production to 1,000 gigawatts by 2050 (an
increase of 2% per year), a new storage facility equal to
the currently planned capacity of Yucca Mountain would have
to be created somewhere in the world about every three to
four years to permanently store the spent nuclear fuel. (John
Deutch and Ernest J. Moniz et al, The Future of Nuclear Power:
An Interdisciplinary MIT Study, Cambridge, MA: MIT, 2003.)
For more detailed information on the
nuclear fuel cycle,
please see Reaching Critical Will's Fuel
Cycle page.
Also see How
Stuff Works' illustrated explanation of
nuclear energy production.
Politics of Nuclear
Energy
Background
1. Atoms for Peace. Dwight Eisenhower’s
landmark speech made to the United Nations General Assembly
on 8 December 1953 addressed the world’s widespread
fear and discontent over recently developed atomic technology
and weapons. His speech proposed that a nuclear regulatory
agency be created, which led to the establishment of the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Eisenhower sought to transform
nuclear technology into a peaceful and humanitarian pursuit
by focusing on nuclear energy development; however, his promotion
of nuclear energy led to its proliferation through the US
and the world.
Full text of Atoms for Peace
For more information, see articles by the Arms
Control Association and the Bulletin
of Atomic Scientists.
2. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
Developed as a means to curb and control the production and
proliferation of nuclear weapons and nuclear weapons materials,
this treaty entered-into-force in 1970. While imposing restrictions
on nuclear weapons development, Article IV of the NPT establishes
access to nuclear technology for peaceful purposes as an “inalienable
right. ” Please see the full
text of Article IV and further
discussion of Article IV and its legacy.
3. The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).
The CTBT,
negotiated by the Conference on Disarmament and presented
to the UN General Assembly in September 1996, is the first
treaty to ban all nuclear explosions. The CTBT took an important
leap forward in disarmament legislation by including nuclear
test explosions in the ban. What is particularly interesting
about the CTBT is that it can only enter into force once all
44 states with nuclear energy reactors sign and ratify the
treaty regardless of whether they have, or are pursuing, nuclear
weapons. This requirement, established in Annex II of the
CTBT, was an unprecedented acknowledgement of the link between
nuclear weapons and nuclear energy capabilities. As of yet,
this Treaty has not been ratified by all Annex II states.
Current Controversies
Countries such as Iraq, Iran,
and North
Korea have brought the connection between nuclear energy
and nuclear weapons into the international spotlight. As the
media coverage grows around these stories, it is important
to remember the cold hard facts about the types of nuclear
technology each country actually possesses. Please visit the
IAEA's site
for a profile of each country, or Reaching Critical Will’s
own annual
shadow report for more comprehensive information.
Iraq. After the first Gulf War,
IAEA inspectors discovered a clandestine nuclear weapons program
in Iraq, which Iraq had maintained was intended strictly for
peaceful nuclear purposes. The IAEA, operating under the Comprehensive
Safeguards Agreement (a weak verification regime mandatory
under the NPT), had failed to effectively detect Iraq’s
clandestine program. This IAEA failure led to the development
of the Model Additional Protocol, a much more stringent and
intrusive inspections regime. More and more States are beginning
to support the idea of the Model Additional Protocol as a
precondition to the NPT Article IV entitlement.
Doubts over Iraq’s nuclear weapons program during the
second Bush administration lead to further IAEA inspections.
While the United Nations and many States around the world
wanted to continue inspections, the second Bush administration
felt that inspections would not be able to provide conclusive
answers. As a result, the US decided to initiate the current
war without approval from the UN.
For more information, please see the Arms
Control Association.
North Korea. The events surrounding
North Korea’s attempts at developing nuclear weaponry
from nuclear energy capabilities illustrates the dangers of
nuclear energy proliferation. One particularly interesting
aspect of the US’s reactions to North Korea’s
nuclear developments is in how markedly different it is from
its reaction to allegations about Iraq’s nuclear development.
For more information, please see RCW's North
Korea Report.
Iran. Under the NPT, all countries
are allowed to develop nuclear power for peaceful uses, under
the inspection of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
They are also allowed to enrich uranium to the level needed
to make fuel for nuclear power, again under the IAEA's monitoring.
However, the same technology can be used to enrich uranium
further in order to make nuclear weapons. Whether or not Iran
is secretly developing or intending to develop nuclear weapons,
by hiding its uranium enrichment programme for 18 years from
the IAEA Iran has violated the NPT and alarmed the international
community.
For more information, please see RCW's report, Nuclear
Iran?
Nuclear
Energy and Climate Change
FACT: The phenomenon known as global warming
has been documented
by scientists. CO2 build-up in the atmosphere causes solar
energy to be trapped thus raising the average global temperature
and causing potentially harmful climate and ecological change.
FACT: A reduction of CO2 emissions generated
by human activity is necessary to slow or at least reduce
the contribution of human activity to this ecologically menacing
phenomenon.
FACT: 70%
of world electricity comes from Fossil Fuels.
About 16% of the world’s electricity comes from Nuclear
Power and 14% from Renewable Resources.
FICTION: Increased use of nuclear
energy should be the solution to dependence on fossil fuels
and thus help reduce global CO2 emissions.
FACT: Nuclear power usage has environmental,
health, and security risks that make it an undesirable substitute
for fossil fuels. Many sources of renewable energy do not
pose such great risks, and thus should be explored.
FICTION: Nuclear power is a
Clean Source of Energy that can safely and effectively be
used to produce electricity without CO2 emissions.
FACT: Research
has shown that taking into account the entire nuclear fuel
cycle, between 34 and 60 grams of CO2 are emitted per generated
kilowatt hour (kWh). Estimates place the CO2 per unit of energy
at 4-5 times higher than the average quantities of CO2 produced
from renewable energy sources.
FACT: Nuclear energy is not a clean source
of energy because it produces massive amounts of toxic, radioactive
waste. In the US, this currently amounts to 2,000 metric tons
of highly radioactive waste per year.
FACT: Waste from nuclear energy production
must be safely and securely stored for between 10,000 years
and 240,000 years in order to prevent health and environmental
disasters from radioactive contamination.
FACT: The Three Mile Island, and Chernobyl
disasters caused environmental, economic, health, social damage
to the areas and communities in the regions.
Resources
Action
Kit - Healthy from the Start Campaign - a
project of the Institute for Energy and Environmental Research,
Making Our Milk Safe (MOMS), Alliance for Nuclear Accountability,
People for Children's Health and Environmental Justice, and
Physicians for Social Responsibility
Arjun Makhijani, "Carbon-Free
and Nuclear-Free: A Roadmap for US Energy Policy,"
Science for Democratic Action, Volume 15, Number
1, August 2007.
Michael Spies, "Another
turn of the centrifuge," DisarmamentActivist.org, 24 August
2006.
Jackie Cabasso, "From
the Other Side of the Glass: Some Responses to the State of
the Union Address," DisarmamentActivist.org, 2 February
2006.
International Atomic Energy Agency, "Nuclear
Plant Safety: No Room for Complacency," Staff Report,
2 December 2005.
Internation Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War,
Rethinking
Nuclear Energy and Democracy after September 11, 2001,
”IPPNW Global Health Watch Report, 2004.
S. Julio Friedman and Thomas Homer-Dixon, "Out
of the Energy Box," Foreign Affairs, November/December
2004.
Friends of the Earth, "Power
Politics: Linking Congress, Campaign Contributions and
Energy Policy," 4 November 2003.
David Krieger and Marissa Zubia, "Nuclear
Age Peace Foundation's Top Ten Reasons to Oppose the DoE's
Yucca Mountain Plan," 23 August 2002.
Lawyers' Committee on Nuclear Policy, "Nuclear
Energy and the Non Proliferation Treaty: An Authorized Albatross?"
April 1998.
RCW's "Indigenous
Fact Sheet": perspectives on nuclear energy and weapons
of indigenous communities around the world.
NGOs set the record straight on nuclear energy in the Truth
Commission report.
How safe is nuclear energy? The
Global Resource Action Center on the Environment discusses
nuclear energy in the United States, and also explores other,
sustainable
sources of energy for the world's people.
Organizations and Websites
Canadian
Coalition for Nuclear Responsibility: In depth information
and factsheets about nuclear technology and the Canadian nuclear
industry.
Friends of the
Earth International: Federation of autonomous environmental
organizations that conduct research, educate, and advocate
global environmental issues.
Greenpeace
International: News reports and action alerts on ending
the threat of nuclear energy (+ glossary
of terms).
Greenpeace
International "No More Chernobyls Page": Sign the Greenpeace
Chernobyl Petition.
How
Stuff Works: A clear, illustrated explanation of the processes
of nuclear power and energy production.
IAEA Homepage:
Updates and news on major nuclear issues, also includes background
and historical information.
Institute
for Energy and Environmental Research: Useful factsheets,
publications, and tutorials on the science of nuclear energy.
Nucler
Age Peace Foundation: Nuclear factsheets, some news updates,
and action bulletins.
NuclearFiles.org
- Nuclear Energy: A project of the NAPF, offering analyses
and basic information.
Nuclear
Information and Resource Service: Lots of useful factsheets,
news updates, and action bulletins.
Nuclear Threat
Initiative: Daily news updates, comprehensive discussion
of nuclear topics, country profiles.
NucNews.Net:
A wide array of news sources, updated almost daily - offers
an E-News service called Radiation Bulletin and archives on
the website.
The
Sustainable Energy and Anti-Uranium Service Inc. (SEA-US):
Promotes and publishes information on safe and sustainable
energy production, a nuclear free world, and anti-uranium
mining issues.
World
Nuclear Association: Weekly summaries of international
news relevant to the nuclear energy industry
777 UN Plaza - 6th Floor - New York, NY - 10017 - Ph: 212.682.1265 - Fax: 212.286.8211 - info@reachingcriticalwill.org
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